Ayahuasca & changa
Ayahuasca and changa are psychedelic substances made by combining DMT (dimethyltryptamine) with MAO inhibitors (MAOIs), usually in the form of plants that contain them naturally.
Dosage:
Ayahuasca: 20–200 ml (equivalent to 50 mg DMT) Pharmahuasca: 150 mg moclobemide + 75 mg DMT
Changa: 60–100 mg (equivalent to 30–50 mg DMT)
Ayahuasca: 20–200 ml (equivalent to 50 mg DMT) Pharmahuasca: 150 mg moclobemide + 75 mg DMT
Changa: 60–100 mg (equivalent to 30–50 mg DMT)
Duration:
Ayahuasca (swallowed): 4–6 hours
Pharmahuasca (swallowed): 3–4 hours
Changa (vaporized/smoked): 10–40 minutes
Ayahuasca (swallowed): 4–6 hours
Pharmahuasca (swallowed): 3–4 hours
Changa (vaporized/smoked): 10–40 minutes
Risks:
Acute lethality: ⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
Long-term toxicity: ⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
Dependence: ⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
Cognitive problems: ⦿⦿⦾⦾⦾ (Low risk)
Undesirable events: ⦿⦿⦿⦾⦾ (Moderate risk)
Interactions: ⦿⦿⦿⦿⦾ (High risk)
Scroll down for the full risk profile.
Acute lethality: ⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
Long-term toxicity: ⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
Dependence: ⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
Cognitive problems: ⦿⦿⦾⦾⦾ (Low risk)
Undesirable events: ⦿⦿⦿⦾⦾ (Moderate risk)
Interactions: ⦿⦿⦿⦿⦾ (High risk)
Scroll down for the full risk profile.
Ayahuasca and changa are plant-based psychedelic substances that induce enhanced emotions, sensory illusions, freely associative thinking, and increased wakefulness. They are both made by combining the psychedelic substance DMT (dimethyltryptamine) with substances that inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase, called MAO inhibitors (MAOIs). MAOIs enable the absorption of DMT through the stomach and prolong the duration of the psychedelic effects compared to taking DMT alone [1,2].
Ayahuasca is a brew made from DMT-containing plants, traditionally the leaves of the plant Psychotria viridis, and more recently the bark of the plant Mimosa tenuiflora, especially in European countries where it is more accessible [3,4]. These are boiled together with the vine Banisteriopsis caapi, which contains substances known as harmala alkaloids (mainly harmine and harmaline, as well as tetrahydroharmine), which have MAOI effects [1,3,5]. Ayahuasca has its origins in the Amazon basin of South America, and is traditionally consumed in ceremonies where a shaman serves the brew to the participants. Indigenous peoples of this region have been using ayahuasca ceremonially for at least 500 years [6,7] and possibly over 1000 years [8].
The term "pharmahuasca" is often used to describe the ingestion of DMT in pure form, whether synthetic or extracted, after first ingesting harmala alkaloids or medications with MAOI effects. Pharmahuasca has been reported to produce less nausea than plant-based ayahuasca [9], but the two are similar in most other respects. On this page, we will refer to both ayahuasca and pharmahuasca as simply "ayahuasca" except where otherwise noted.
Changa is made by mixing either DMT-containing plant matter or a DMT-containing liquid with MAOI-containing plant matter [10,11]. The mixture is smoked or vaporized, which produces a somewhat longer-lasting psychedelic effect than smoking DMT without an MAOI, but more short-lived than ayahuasca and pharmahuasca [10].
Neither ayahuasca nor changa are addictive, and are likely not toxic when used in normal amounts, but the psychedelic experience they produce can be very psychologically demanding [2,7]. Like all psychedelics, they should be treated with great respect, as they can produce life-changing experiences, and inexperienced users should not take high doses. Mood, circumstances, and surroundings ("set and setting") have a major influence on how the psychedelic experience plays out [12].
Ayahuasca is a brew made from DMT-containing plants, traditionally the leaves of the plant Psychotria viridis, and more recently the bark of the plant Mimosa tenuiflora, especially in European countries where it is more accessible [3,4]. These are boiled together with the vine Banisteriopsis caapi, which contains substances known as harmala alkaloids (mainly harmine and harmaline, as well as tetrahydroharmine), which have MAOI effects [1,3,5]. Ayahuasca has its origins in the Amazon basin of South America, and is traditionally consumed in ceremonies where a shaman serves the brew to the participants. Indigenous peoples of this region have been using ayahuasca ceremonially for at least 500 years [6,7] and possibly over 1000 years [8].
The term "pharmahuasca" is often used to describe the ingestion of DMT in pure form, whether synthetic or extracted, after first ingesting harmala alkaloids or medications with MAOI effects. Pharmahuasca has been reported to produce less nausea than plant-based ayahuasca [9], but the two are similar in most other respects. On this page, we will refer to both ayahuasca and pharmahuasca as simply "ayahuasca" except where otherwise noted.
Changa is made by mixing either DMT-containing plant matter or a DMT-containing liquid with MAOI-containing plant matter [10,11]. The mixture is smoked or vaporized, which produces a somewhat longer-lasting psychedelic effect than smoking DMT without an MAOI, but more short-lived than ayahuasca and pharmahuasca [10].
Neither ayahuasca nor changa are addictive, and are likely not toxic when used in normal amounts, but the psychedelic experience they produce can be very psychologically demanding [2,7]. Like all psychedelics, they should be treated with great respect, as they can produce life-changing experiences, and inexperienced users should not take high doses. Mood, circumstances, and surroundings ("set and setting") have a major influence on how the psychedelic experience plays out [12].
Please see our 10 general rules for sensible drug use. You should also be mindful of the following:
- Never take DMT+MAOI at the same time as MDMA or other central nervous stimulants, and do not take MDMA or similar drugs for the first few days after having taken ayahuasca/changa
- Avoid using DMT+MAOI if you are taking medications containing lithium or tramadol, as these combinations may lead to seizures. Also avoid taking DMT+MAOI if you are taking SSRI-based antidepressants.
- Avoid taking DMT+MAOI if you or anyone in your immediate family have a psychotic disorder. Also be cautious if you have a severe anxiety disorder.
- It is best to avoid taking DMT+MAOI with cannabis, as this increases the risk of anxiety, confusion, and psychotic reactions.
- Do not try DMT+MAOI spontaneously in public. Beginners should thoroughly read up on the effects beforehand and have an experienced user present.
- Make sure you are rested and in good health before taking ayahuasca. The effects can be very demanding, both mentally and physically.
- Eat lightly in the days before taking ayahuasca. Avoid meat and cheese, as well as all fermented or yeast-containing food and drink.
- Assess your mod, situation, surroundings, and who you are with. You should have the option of moving over to another safe spot if necessary. Put away your phone and make sure you have no appointments or tasks for the rest of the day.
- If you plan to participate in an ayahuasca ceremony: thoroughly research the organizer's background beforehand and make sure they are both serious and competent. Try to find testimonials from previous participants who are not affiliated with the organizer.
- If you get anxious during the trip: change your surroundings or music, breathe calmly, and try not to resist.
We employ a five-step risk scale with values ranging from "very low" to "very high" within six categories: Acute toxicity, Long-term toxicity, Dependence, Cognitive problems, Unpleasant events, and Interactions.
These values are based on qualitative reviews of available knowledge, and should only be viewed as guidelines. They are also relative, so a score of "very low risk" does not mean the substance is risk-free. The scale assumes users are normal, healthy individuals; beware that even drugs which are well-tolerated by most people may nevertheless be harmful to some users. It also assumes normal use patterns; that is, if a given drug is only harmful when used in a certain way, yet is almost never used in that way, then the drug will be considered less harmful compared to a similar drug which is commonly used in a harmful way.
ACUTE TOXICITY
⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
There are no documented cases of lethal overdose from ayahuasca or changa alone [7]. Animal studies suggests that it is practically impossible to ingest a lethal dose of ayahuasca due to the amounts of brew that would be required [13]. It is estimated that a person weighing 75 kg would need to drink about 7.8 L of ayahuasca for it to be lethal, and the unpleasant taste of the brew makes it highly unlikely that anyone will ever attempt this [7]. However, rare individual cases have been documented wherein people have experienced life-threatening side effects after taking ayahuasca, but it is possible that this is due to combinations with other substances than those traditionally found in the ayahuasca brew [7,14]. In particular, people with heart problems should be cautious, as the use of ayahuasca can cause a temporary increase in heart rate and blood pressure [7,15].
LONG-TERM TOXICITY
⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
DMT occurs naturally in the human body [16] and appears to be very non-toxic, and there is no evidence that the other ingredients in ayahuasca or changa cause health damage when ingested at the dosage and frequency that is common [1,7,17]. Ayahuasca has been administered to rats in doses equivalent to over 50 times what is typically consumed in an ayahuasca ceremony, without any observed long-term effects [13]. Smoking or vaporizing changa can irritate the lungs, but frequent use of changa is not common.
DEPENDENCE
⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
Like other psychedelics, ayahuasca and changa are apparently not addictive for humans or animals, and frequent use is not associated with any withdrawal symptoms [2,7]. Tolerance to the effects of DMT are extremely short-lived, barely lasting longer than the high itself [18]; this stands in sharp contrast to other classic psychedelics, where frequent use results in near-complete tolerance lasting up to several days.
Many people experience less desire to use drugs after taking psychedelics [6,7,19]. Moreover, participating in an ayahuasca ceremony is usually both mentally and physically exhausting, and it is common to want to take a break from such experiences immediately following one; and in any case, few people have the opportunity to participate in such ceremonies very often.
Changa, on the other hand, is easier to use frequently, and individuals with a strong urge to escape reality or seek excitement may want to use it relatively often. This is rarely very problematic, as the effect is short-lived.
COGNITIVE PROBLEMS
⦿⦿⦾⦾⦾ (Low risk)
Research has not found any statistical correlation between psychedelics use and mental illness at the population level [20]. Studies on ayahuasca use among young people have also not found any negative cognitive effects [19,21–23]. Like DMT, however, ayahuasca or changa use can cause transient anxiety or delusions during the high itself [1,7]. This usually happens as a result of taking too high a dose or unfavorable set and setting [12]. People with mental illness or psychotic disorders in the family should also be cautious with psychedelics.
Some psychedelics users experience persistent long-term visual disturbances, resembling certain visual effects typical during the high itself, called hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) [20,21]. It is unclear to what extent HPPD is caused by psychedelics use, as similar symptoms have been documented following use of other recreational drugs unrelated to classic psychedelics, as well as in people suffering from anxiety disorders who have never used recreational drugs [21,22]. HPPD tends to go away by itself if one stops using recreational drugs [20,22], and the psychiatric drug lamotrigine may be effective in treating the condition [21].
UNDESIRABLE EVENTS
⦿⦿⦿⦾⦾ (Moderate risk)
Aggressive behavior is uncommon when using ayahuasca or changa, as the high normally makes users introverted and introspective [1,7]. However, like other psychedelics, ayahuasca and changa can make the user confused and thus more at risk of unwanted incidents in unsafe environments or situations requiring their attention.
Since ayahuasca has a longer duration of action than both pure DMT and changa, it also carries a greater risk of accidents in general. At the same time, people are often sufficiently immobilized during the high that the chances of getting into a dangerous situation will normally be limited, and during ceremonial use, the shaman or ceremony leader (or their assistants) normally ensure that participants do not put themselves in dangerous situations.
There are currently many different actors who offer to conduct ayahuasca ceremonies, and unfortunately, they are not all serious or competent. In some cases, participants have been sexually exploited by the shaman attending the ceremony, and deaths have also occured as a result of ayahuasca being brewed with the wrong plants or with other dangerous ingredients mixed in [27]. For this reason, if one plans to participate in an ayahuasca ceremony, it is important to conduct a thorough background check of the organizer(s) beforehand, and ideally talk to previous participants who are not affiliated with the organizer.
INTERACTIONS
⦿⦿⦿⦿⦾ (High risk)
Ayahuasca, pharmahuasca, and changa all contain MAO inhibitors (MAOIs). Monoamine oxidase (MAO) is an enzyme that breaks down a number of different substances around the body, including neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine in the brain. As the name implies, MAOIs inhibit or block this effect, potentially allowing for neurotransmitters to accumulate due to not being broken down. Taking ayahuasca or changa in combination with other MAOIs or drugs that increase the release of serotonin or dopamine, such as SSRI-based antidepressants or stimulant drugs, can therefore lead to dangerously high levels of neurotransmitters in the brain [15]. Combining ayahuasca or changa with substances such as MDMA, which causes the brain to release very large amounts of serotonin, can lead to deadly serotonin poisoning, known as serotonin syndrome. It is also not recommended to use MDMA or other central nervous system stimulants in the first few days after taking ayahuasca or changa.
MAOIs also prevent the breakdown of the substance tyramine in the liver and stomach. Tyramine occurs in high concentrations in fermented foods, such as cheese, salami, pickles, tofu, and soy sauce, as well as in high-protein foods like meat and fish. When tyramine is not broken down, it enters the blood, where it causes a release of norepinephrine. This, in turn, causes blood vessels to contract, which can lead to dangerously high blood pressure [28]. However, the MAOIs normally used in ayahuasca/pharmahuasca/changa, such as harmala alkaloids or moclobemide, have a reversible effect that only lasts for a few hours. There is thus little risk involved with ingesting normal amounts of tyramine in connection with ayahuasca or changa use, and no serious incidents have been reported after eating tyramine-containing foods following an ayahuasca ceremony [1]. However, it is still not recommended to eat foods containing a lot of tyramine just before or while taking ayahuasca or changa.
In the case of an irreversible MAOI – such as phenelzine, tranylcypromine, or isocarboxazid – being used in pharmahuasca, one should avoid foods containing tyramine both beforehand and for at least two weeks after taking pharmahuasca. Irreversible MAOIs are active for a long time after ingestion, and should ideally be avoided as a component in pharmahuasca [28].
Ayahuasca/changa should not be used by people taking lithium or tramadol, as these substances can cause seizures in combination with psychedelics [29,30].
Ayahuasca/changa should ideally not be combined with cannabis, especially not by people who are inexperienced with either one of the two, as this could lead to anxiety, confusion, and psychotic reactions. Combining ayahuasca/changa with large amounts of alcohol is also strongly discouraged, as this can make users severely disoriented, and some alcoholic beverages contain high amounts of tyramine [28].
These values are based on qualitative reviews of available knowledge, and should only be viewed as guidelines. They are also relative, so a score of "very low risk" does not mean the substance is risk-free. The scale assumes users are normal, healthy individuals; beware that even drugs which are well-tolerated by most people may nevertheless be harmful to some users. It also assumes normal use patterns; that is, if a given drug is only harmful when used in a certain way, yet is almost never used in that way, then the drug will be considered less harmful compared to a similar drug which is commonly used in a harmful way.
ACUTE TOXICITY
⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
There are no documented cases of lethal overdose from ayahuasca or changa alone [7]. Animal studies suggests that it is practically impossible to ingest a lethal dose of ayahuasca due to the amounts of brew that would be required [13]. It is estimated that a person weighing 75 kg would need to drink about 7.8 L of ayahuasca for it to be lethal, and the unpleasant taste of the brew makes it highly unlikely that anyone will ever attempt this [7]. However, rare individual cases have been documented wherein people have experienced life-threatening side effects after taking ayahuasca, but it is possible that this is due to combinations with other substances than those traditionally found in the ayahuasca brew [7,14]. In particular, people with heart problems should be cautious, as the use of ayahuasca can cause a temporary increase in heart rate and blood pressure [7,15].
LONG-TERM TOXICITY
⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
DMT occurs naturally in the human body [16] and appears to be very non-toxic, and there is no evidence that the other ingredients in ayahuasca or changa cause health damage when ingested at the dosage and frequency that is common [1,7,17]. Ayahuasca has been administered to rats in doses equivalent to over 50 times what is typically consumed in an ayahuasca ceremony, without any observed long-term effects [13]. Smoking or vaporizing changa can irritate the lungs, but frequent use of changa is not common.
DEPENDENCE
⦿⦾⦾⦾⦾ (Very low risk)
Like other psychedelics, ayahuasca and changa are apparently not addictive for humans or animals, and frequent use is not associated with any withdrawal symptoms [2,7]. Tolerance to the effects of DMT are extremely short-lived, barely lasting longer than the high itself [18]; this stands in sharp contrast to other classic psychedelics, where frequent use results in near-complete tolerance lasting up to several days.
Many people experience less desire to use drugs after taking psychedelics [6,7,19]. Moreover, participating in an ayahuasca ceremony is usually both mentally and physically exhausting, and it is common to want to take a break from such experiences immediately following one; and in any case, few people have the opportunity to participate in such ceremonies very often.
Changa, on the other hand, is easier to use frequently, and individuals with a strong urge to escape reality or seek excitement may want to use it relatively often. This is rarely very problematic, as the effect is short-lived.
COGNITIVE PROBLEMS
⦿⦿⦾⦾⦾ (Low risk)
Research has not found any statistical correlation between psychedelics use and mental illness at the population level [20]. Studies on ayahuasca use among young people have also not found any negative cognitive effects [19,21–23]. Like DMT, however, ayahuasca or changa use can cause transient anxiety or delusions during the high itself [1,7]. This usually happens as a result of taking too high a dose or unfavorable set and setting [12]. People with mental illness or psychotic disorders in the family should also be cautious with psychedelics.
Some psychedelics users experience persistent long-term visual disturbances, resembling certain visual effects typical during the high itself, called hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) [20,21]. It is unclear to what extent HPPD is caused by psychedelics use, as similar symptoms have been documented following use of other recreational drugs unrelated to classic psychedelics, as well as in people suffering from anxiety disorders who have never used recreational drugs [21,22]. HPPD tends to go away by itself if one stops using recreational drugs [20,22], and the psychiatric drug lamotrigine may be effective in treating the condition [21].
UNDESIRABLE EVENTS
⦿⦿⦿⦾⦾ (Moderate risk)
Aggressive behavior is uncommon when using ayahuasca or changa, as the high normally makes users introverted and introspective [1,7]. However, like other psychedelics, ayahuasca and changa can make the user confused and thus more at risk of unwanted incidents in unsafe environments or situations requiring their attention.
Since ayahuasca has a longer duration of action than both pure DMT and changa, it also carries a greater risk of accidents in general. At the same time, people are often sufficiently immobilized during the high that the chances of getting into a dangerous situation will normally be limited, and during ceremonial use, the shaman or ceremony leader (or their assistants) normally ensure that participants do not put themselves in dangerous situations.
There are currently many different actors who offer to conduct ayahuasca ceremonies, and unfortunately, they are not all serious or competent. In some cases, participants have been sexually exploited by the shaman attending the ceremony, and deaths have also occured as a result of ayahuasca being brewed with the wrong plants or with other dangerous ingredients mixed in [27]. For this reason, if one plans to participate in an ayahuasca ceremony, it is important to conduct a thorough background check of the organizer(s) beforehand, and ideally talk to previous participants who are not affiliated with the organizer.
INTERACTIONS
⦿⦿⦿⦿⦾ (High risk)
Ayahuasca, pharmahuasca, and changa all contain MAO inhibitors (MAOIs). Monoamine oxidase (MAO) is an enzyme that breaks down a number of different substances around the body, including neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine in the brain. As the name implies, MAOIs inhibit or block this effect, potentially allowing for neurotransmitters to accumulate due to not being broken down. Taking ayahuasca or changa in combination with other MAOIs or drugs that increase the release of serotonin or dopamine, such as SSRI-based antidepressants or stimulant drugs, can therefore lead to dangerously high levels of neurotransmitters in the brain [15]. Combining ayahuasca or changa with substances such as MDMA, which causes the brain to release very large amounts of serotonin, can lead to deadly serotonin poisoning, known as serotonin syndrome. It is also not recommended to use MDMA or other central nervous system stimulants in the first few days after taking ayahuasca or changa.
MAOIs also prevent the breakdown of the substance tyramine in the liver and stomach. Tyramine occurs in high concentrations in fermented foods, such as cheese, salami, pickles, tofu, and soy sauce, as well as in high-protein foods like meat and fish. When tyramine is not broken down, it enters the blood, where it causes a release of norepinephrine. This, in turn, causes blood vessels to contract, which can lead to dangerously high blood pressure [28]. However, the MAOIs normally used in ayahuasca/pharmahuasca/changa, such as harmala alkaloids or moclobemide, have a reversible effect that only lasts for a few hours. There is thus little risk involved with ingesting normal amounts of tyramine in connection with ayahuasca or changa use, and no serious incidents have been reported after eating tyramine-containing foods following an ayahuasca ceremony [1]. However, it is still not recommended to eat foods containing a lot of tyramine just before or while taking ayahuasca or changa.
In the case of an irreversible MAOI – such as phenelzine, tranylcypromine, or isocarboxazid – being used in pharmahuasca, one should avoid foods containing tyramine both beforehand and for at least two weeks after taking pharmahuasca. Irreversible MAOIs are active for a long time after ingestion, and should ideally be avoided as a component in pharmahuasca [28].
Ayahuasca/changa should not be used by people taking lithium or tramadol, as these substances can cause seizures in combination with psychedelics [29,30].
Ayahuasca/changa should ideally not be combined with cannabis, especially not by people who are inexperienced with either one of the two, as this could lead to anxiety, confusion, and psychotic reactions. Combining ayahuasca/changa with large amounts of alcohol is also strongly discouraged, as this can make users severely disoriented, and some alcoholic beverages contain high amounts of tyramine [28].
DOSAGE
It is hard to specify a "correct" dose of ayahuasca. The strength of any particular brew depends on which plants have been used and how they are prepared, and the dosage varies between traditions: the Shuar tribes use only 20–30 ml per dose in their ceremonies, while it is more common to use 50–100 ml in the Santo Daime church, and 100–200 ml in the UDV church [32]. The amount of active ingredients in the brew also varies greatly, with measured DMT content ranging from 0.088 mg/ml to 2.7 mg/ml (a difference of over 30x), and with MAOI content also varying significantly [4,7,33]. A typical dose of ayahuasca often corresponds to 35–40 mg DMT, 250–300 mg harmine, 30–35 mg harmaline, and 150–200 mg tetrahydroharmaline; however, ingestion of significantly higher amounts of active ingredients has also been recorded [2,7,15,33]. It is common to consume several doses during a ceremony, so the size of the dose alone does not determine the effect. The shaman typically decides whether and when to take multiple doses.
For changa, a typical dose corresponds to between 30 and 50 mg of DMT [34], although the amount ingested depends on both how much is smoked and the concentration of DMT in the mixture. There are several different changa recipes that each yield different concentrations of DMT, but the most common approach is to mix in a 1:1 ratio so that 100 mg of changa contains 50 mg of DMT [11].
A typical dose of pharmahuasca would normally be either 100 mg harmala alkaloids + 50 mg DMT, or 150 mg moclobemide + 75 mg DMT. The mixture is typically ingested in two stages, with the MAOI dose (harmala alkaloids or moclobemide) being ingested up to an hour before the DMT dose [35].
FORM
Ayahuasca is a plant-based brew that is consumed as a tea. Pharmahuasca is usually taken in capsule form, and the MAOI is usually taken a little while before the DMT [35].
Changa can be smoked or vaporized in a pipe or bong, or mixed in a joint and smoked. (Note: although mixing changa with cannabis is not uncommon, this combination is not recommended unless one is an experienced user of both cannabis and changa.)
ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION
Mephedrone is most commonly taken by mouth (swallowing/ingesting) or nose (snorting/insufflating), often in combination with one another. It is also possible to take mephedrone rectally, in which case the effects and duration are similar to insufflating; this is normally done by dissolving the drug in lukewarm water before using a plastic syringe (without a needle) to inject it up inside the rectum. Mephedrone can also be absorbed directly through the mucus lining of the mouth, for instance by placing it under the tongue or between the gums and cheek and allowing it to absorb for some time. However, it should be noted that mephedrone is an irritant to mucus membranes (whether in the nose, rectum, or mouth), and that taking the drug in any of these ways tends to shorten the duration of both the come-up and the drug effects themselves, both of which are generally associated with an increased risk of addiction. A small number of users also inject mephedrone, which yields both the quickest effects come-up and the highest risk of addiction [2].
It is hard to specify a "correct" dose of ayahuasca. The strength of any particular brew depends on which plants have been used and how they are prepared, and the dosage varies between traditions: the Shuar tribes use only 20–30 ml per dose in their ceremonies, while it is more common to use 50–100 ml in the Santo Daime church, and 100–200 ml in the UDV church [32]. The amount of active ingredients in the brew also varies greatly, with measured DMT content ranging from 0.088 mg/ml to 2.7 mg/ml (a difference of over 30x), and with MAOI content also varying significantly [4,7,33]. A typical dose of ayahuasca often corresponds to 35–40 mg DMT, 250–300 mg harmine, 30–35 mg harmaline, and 150–200 mg tetrahydroharmaline; however, ingestion of significantly higher amounts of active ingredients has also been recorded [2,7,15,33]. It is common to consume several doses during a ceremony, so the size of the dose alone does not determine the effect. The shaman typically decides whether and when to take multiple doses.
For changa, a typical dose corresponds to between 30 and 50 mg of DMT [34], although the amount ingested depends on both how much is smoked and the concentration of DMT in the mixture. There are several different changa recipes that each yield different concentrations of DMT, but the most common approach is to mix in a 1:1 ratio so that 100 mg of changa contains 50 mg of DMT [11].
A typical dose of pharmahuasca would normally be either 100 mg harmala alkaloids + 50 mg DMT, or 150 mg moclobemide + 75 mg DMT. The mixture is typically ingested in two stages, with the MAOI dose (harmala alkaloids or moclobemide) being ingested up to an hour before the DMT dose [35].
FORM
Ayahuasca is a plant-based brew that is consumed as a tea. Pharmahuasca is usually taken in capsule form, and the MAOI is usually taken a little while before the DMT [35].
Changa can be smoked or vaporized in a pipe or bong, or mixed in a joint and smoked. (Note: although mixing changa with cannabis is not uncommon, this combination is not recommended unless one is an experienced user of both cannabis and changa.)
ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION
Mephedrone is most commonly taken by mouth (swallowing/ingesting) or nose (snorting/insufflating), often in combination with one another. It is also possible to take mephedrone rectally, in which case the effects and duration are similar to insufflating; this is normally done by dissolving the drug in lukewarm water before using a plastic syringe (without a needle) to inject it up inside the rectum. Mephedrone can also be absorbed directly through the mucus lining of the mouth, for instance by placing it under the tongue or between the gums and cheek and allowing it to absorb for some time. However, it should be noted that mephedrone is an irritant to mucus membranes (whether in the nose, rectum, or mouth), and that taking the drug in any of these ways tends to shorten the duration of both the come-up and the drug effects themselves, both of which are generally associated with an increased risk of addiction. A small number of users also inject mephedrone, which yields both the quickest effects come-up and the highest risk of addiction [2].
MECHANISM OF ACTION
DMT is mainly responsible for the psychoactive effects of ayahuasca and changa. Like other classic psychedelics, DMT imitates serotonin in the brain and activates serotonin receptor subtype 2A [1,2,6,7]. However, it is also active on a wider range of serotonin receptor subtypes than other classic psychedelics, as well as other receptors altogether, including the poorly understood sigma-1 receptor [16].
The MAOIs in ayahuasca and changa are primarily used to prevent DMT from being broken down by the enzyme MAO-A, which is found in the gut, liver, and brain tissue. This prolongs the psychoactive effects and also allows DMT to be absorbed through the stomach [1,2,7]. It is unclear how much the MAOIs directly contribute to the psychoactive effects of ayahuasca and changa, but it is known that the harmala alkaloids found in ayahuasca can have psychoactive effects when consumed on their own [7]. It is believed that tetrahydroharmine primarily contributes by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, while a range of different mechanisms have been hypothesized for the psychoactive effect of harmine and harmaline [2,7].
DURATION
The effects of a single dose of ayahuasca typically last 4–6 hours depending on the dosage and individual metabolism. When ayahuasca is taken in a ceremonial context, it is often re-dosed multiple times, which can prolong the duration of the high. Like with most psychoactive drugs, the time it takes for ayahuasca to take effect depends on the dose, whether one has recently eaten, and individual sensitivity. Some effects normally become noticeable after 20–60 minutes, and the full psychoactive effect will be reached after 1.5–2 hours, after which they will gradually diminish. Many people find that the intensity of the effects increase and decrease in a wave-like fashion [1].
Changa typically lasts 15–30 minutes [10].
SUBJECTIVE EFFECTS
The main psychoactive agent in ayahuasca/changa is DMT, and the psychoactive effects of both ayahuasca and changa are similar to those of pure DMT (read more). However, the effects of ayahuasca are more prolonged and typically less intense than those of smoked DMT [1,6,7]. Many users claim that the prolonged experience of ayahuasca provides more room for introspection and personal development than smoked DMT does.
Many people report a feeling of "mindfulness" that can persist long after taking ayahuasca, and is more prominent than similar effects felt after other psychedelics [36].
Difficult experiences
Like most psychedelics, ayahuasca/changa tends to enhance free associative thinking, which means that unwanted or "dark" thoughts can end up steering the experience in an unpleasant direction. Users must therefore learn to either mindfully accept every thought that arises during the experience, or to steer their thoughts into a more desirable direction. Set and setting (mindset, mood, location, music, social setting) play a major role in deciding how easily one is able to achieve a pleasant or desirable experience.
The easiest way to avoid a difficult experience is to simply take a moderate dose. Some people may also be more prone to difficult experiences than others; people who struggle with anxiety or intrusive thoughts, for instance, should either avoid psychedelics altogether or begin cautiously with low doses. Some women also report that their menstrual cycle can influence the risk of having a difficult experience.
If you are having a difficult experience, it is best to simply "let go" and allow your thoughts to come and go on their own, rather than try to control or resist them [12]. In such cases it can be helpful to have a calm place to lie down and rest until you feel better, and to have a friend nearby who can occasionally remind you that you are safe and that the experience will pass. Many users report that it helps to focus on breathing deeply and calmly.
Powerful or deeply meaningful experiences
DMT is a very powerful psychedelic drug capable of producing visions and impressions that need to be processed over time. The experience challenges one's perception of reality, and often leads one to contemplate over big, existential questions. Since a lot of subconscious psychological content can surface during the experience, one may also be confronted with uncomfortable aspects of oneself or one's life [37]. Although this is often found to be rewarding in the long term, it can still be problematic in the moment.
It is not too uncommon for people to suddenly change their behavior or enact major changes in their lives after a powerful psychedelic experience. Research has showed that a single psychedelic experience can produce long-lasting changes along the personality trait of openness, i.e. receptivity to new ideas and perspectives [38]. This effect is especially pronounced in the first days or weeks immediately following the first experience, so one should be cautious about making big, life-changing decisions within this timeframe. Most people report powerful psychedelic experiences as being positive or beneficial in retrospect, even though they may have been extremely difficult or unpleasant at the time [37]. Still, it is strongly recommended to approach psychedelics with great respect and adequate preparation, and to have a trusted friend to discuss the experience with afterwards.
Before an ayahuasca ceremony, participants commonly spend a day devoted to mental preparation, for example by meditating or defining a clear intention within themselves for their participation in the ceremony. The days after the ceremony are often devoted to process the impressions from the experience together with the shaman/ceremonial leader and the other participants.
SIDE EFFECTS
It is very common to experience severe nausea and general digestive trouble when taking ayahuasca, and both vomiting and diarrhea often occur. Vomiting is often viewed as a necessary cleansing process that is part of the ritual [1,2].
While a significant increase in heart rate and blood pressure has been measured when pure DMT has been administered intravenously, only small increases have been measured when taking ayahuasca. This may be due to the fact that ayahuasca is ingested orally and absorbed through the stomach, which leads to a much slower increase in DMT levels in the blood compared to injection [1,2,7].
Ayahuasca and changa have very few after-effects and do not cause a hangover, but ayahuasca in particular can feel very physically and mentally demanding during the experience. For this reason, it is important to take time to recover after participating in an ayahuasca ceremony. Some people experience a slight improvement in cognitive function in the days after an ayahuasca experience [1,33].
DMT is mainly responsible for the psychoactive effects of ayahuasca and changa. Like other classic psychedelics, DMT imitates serotonin in the brain and activates serotonin receptor subtype 2A [1,2,6,7]. However, it is also active on a wider range of serotonin receptor subtypes than other classic psychedelics, as well as other receptors altogether, including the poorly understood sigma-1 receptor [16].
The MAOIs in ayahuasca and changa are primarily used to prevent DMT from being broken down by the enzyme MAO-A, which is found in the gut, liver, and brain tissue. This prolongs the psychoactive effects and also allows DMT to be absorbed through the stomach [1,2,7]. It is unclear how much the MAOIs directly contribute to the psychoactive effects of ayahuasca and changa, but it is known that the harmala alkaloids found in ayahuasca can have psychoactive effects when consumed on their own [7]. It is believed that tetrahydroharmine primarily contributes by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, while a range of different mechanisms have been hypothesized for the psychoactive effect of harmine and harmaline [2,7].
DURATION
The effects of a single dose of ayahuasca typically last 4–6 hours depending on the dosage and individual metabolism. When ayahuasca is taken in a ceremonial context, it is often re-dosed multiple times, which can prolong the duration of the high. Like with most psychoactive drugs, the time it takes for ayahuasca to take effect depends on the dose, whether one has recently eaten, and individual sensitivity. Some effects normally become noticeable after 20–60 minutes, and the full psychoactive effect will be reached after 1.5–2 hours, after which they will gradually diminish. Many people find that the intensity of the effects increase and decrease in a wave-like fashion [1].
Changa typically lasts 15–30 minutes [10].
SUBJECTIVE EFFECTS
The main psychoactive agent in ayahuasca/changa is DMT, and the psychoactive effects of both ayahuasca and changa are similar to those of pure DMT (read more). However, the effects of ayahuasca are more prolonged and typically less intense than those of smoked DMT [1,6,7]. Many users claim that the prolonged experience of ayahuasca provides more room for introspection and personal development than smoked DMT does.
Many people report a feeling of "mindfulness" that can persist long after taking ayahuasca, and is more prominent than similar effects felt after other psychedelics [36].
Difficult experiences
Like most psychedelics, ayahuasca/changa tends to enhance free associative thinking, which means that unwanted or "dark" thoughts can end up steering the experience in an unpleasant direction. Users must therefore learn to either mindfully accept every thought that arises during the experience, or to steer their thoughts into a more desirable direction. Set and setting (mindset, mood, location, music, social setting) play a major role in deciding how easily one is able to achieve a pleasant or desirable experience.
The easiest way to avoid a difficult experience is to simply take a moderate dose. Some people may also be more prone to difficult experiences than others; people who struggle with anxiety or intrusive thoughts, for instance, should either avoid psychedelics altogether or begin cautiously with low doses. Some women also report that their menstrual cycle can influence the risk of having a difficult experience.
If you are having a difficult experience, it is best to simply "let go" and allow your thoughts to come and go on their own, rather than try to control or resist them [12]. In such cases it can be helpful to have a calm place to lie down and rest until you feel better, and to have a friend nearby who can occasionally remind you that you are safe and that the experience will pass. Many users report that it helps to focus on breathing deeply and calmly.
Powerful or deeply meaningful experiences
DMT is a very powerful psychedelic drug capable of producing visions and impressions that need to be processed over time. The experience challenges one's perception of reality, and often leads one to contemplate over big, existential questions. Since a lot of subconscious psychological content can surface during the experience, one may also be confronted with uncomfortable aspects of oneself or one's life [37]. Although this is often found to be rewarding in the long term, it can still be problematic in the moment.
It is not too uncommon for people to suddenly change their behavior or enact major changes in their lives after a powerful psychedelic experience. Research has showed that a single psychedelic experience can produce long-lasting changes along the personality trait of openness, i.e. receptivity to new ideas and perspectives [38]. This effect is especially pronounced in the first days or weeks immediately following the first experience, so one should be cautious about making big, life-changing decisions within this timeframe. Most people report powerful psychedelic experiences as being positive or beneficial in retrospect, even though they may have been extremely difficult or unpleasant at the time [37]. Still, it is strongly recommended to approach psychedelics with great respect and adequate preparation, and to have a trusted friend to discuss the experience with afterwards.
Before an ayahuasca ceremony, participants commonly spend a day devoted to mental preparation, for example by meditating or defining a clear intention within themselves for their participation in the ceremony. The days after the ceremony are often devoted to process the impressions from the experience together with the shaman/ceremonial leader and the other participants.
SIDE EFFECTS
It is very common to experience severe nausea and general digestive trouble when taking ayahuasca, and both vomiting and diarrhea often occur. Vomiting is often viewed as a necessary cleansing process that is part of the ritual [1,2].
While a significant increase in heart rate and blood pressure has been measured when pure DMT has been administered intravenously, only small increases have been measured when taking ayahuasca. This may be due to the fact that ayahuasca is ingested orally and absorbed through the stomach, which leads to a much slower increase in DMT levels in the blood compared to injection [1,2,7].
Ayahuasca and changa have very few after-effects and do not cause a hangover, but ayahuasca in particular can feel very physically and mentally demanding during the experience. For this reason, it is important to take time to recover after participating in an ayahuasca ceremony. Some people experience a slight improvement in cognitive function in the days after an ayahuasca experience [1,33].
Ayahuasca/changa prepared with synthetic or extracted DMT:
DMT is listed as an illicit drug in Norway (narkotikalisten, narkotikaforskriften, legemiddelloven §22). This means it is punishable by law to use, possess, sell, manufacture, import, acquire, store, or ship DMT without a special license for medical or scientific research purposes (legemiddelloven §31, §24; straffeloven §231).
This means that ayahuasca/changa containing DMT in synthetic or isolated form is considered a "mixture" (narkotikaforskriften §3), making it an illicit drug.
Ayahuasca/changa prepared with naturally DMT-containing plants:
Plants containing DMT are not listed as illicit drugs. This means they are not considered illict drugs despite containing significant quantities of DMT, following the supreme court's requirement that any species which naturally contains an illicit substance must be listed individually in the illicit drugs list in order to be counted as such. However, cultivating any of these plants for the sole purpose of producing DMT in any of its listed forms is considered manufacturing of illicit drugs, and is illegal (narkotikaforskriften §7, legemiddelloven §22).
Based on this, it is also illegal to import and distribute seeds of DMT-producing plants (såvareforskriften §28).
Norwegian courts have not yet ruled on whether ayahuasca/changa prepared with DMT-containing plants are considered "mixtures" (as defined by narkotikaforskriften §3) and thus illicit drugs. The UN International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) have, however, expressed that ayahuasca is not a "preparation" as defined by the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. INCB points to the fact that the substances named in the 1971 Convention are only regulated in their isolated form, and not as they naturally occur in plants and other organisms. Therefore, according to the INCB, plant brews like ayahuasca are considered mixtures containing a plant, rather than mixtures containing a particular active ingredient.
Since the term "mixture" in the Norwegian drug regulation (narkotikaforskriften) is to be understood in the same way as the term "preparation" in the 1971 Convention, it is possible that plant-based ayahuasca and changa should not be considered drugs in Norway. However, this is still not clear, as Norway is not bound by the INCB's interpretation. Although it follows from Supreme Court practice that the plant material itself is not a "mixture" even if it is dried and processed, the preparation of both ayahuasca and changa involves dissolving out compounds from the plants, which technically makes it an extraction process. "Extracts" are specifically mentioned in the drug regulation (§3), but it is unclear whether the term is to be understood according to the INCB's definition (i.e. that the active ingredient must also be isolated from other compounds), or whether a crude extract containing all water-soluble substances in the plant (as in ayahuasca) is sufficient.
Until the Norwegian Supreme Court makes a ruling on this issue, it remains unclear whether ayahuasca and changa are considered drugs in Norway. Seeing as clear legal authority is required in order for the courts to punish citizens, it remains doubtful for the time being that one can be punished for drug offenses involving fully plant-based ayahuasca or changa.
Plants containing DMT are also considered medicinal plants, making them prescription drugs (legemiddelforskriften §3–8). This means it is punishable by law to import or sell them without the required permission (legemiddelloven §13, §16, §31; forskrift om tilvirkning og import av legemidler § 3-2). However, live plants for decorative purposes are not considered herbal drugs. Furthermore, any transport, storage, sale, distribution or procurement of illegaly imported DMT-containing plants is viewed as receiving stolen goods, and is punishable under customs law (tolloven §16–4). This means that involvement with plant-based ayahuasca or changa may still be punishable as a customs offense even if it is not a drug offense, provided it can be proven that the constituent plants were illegally imported.
DMT is listed as an illicit drug in Norway (narkotikalisten, narkotikaforskriften, legemiddelloven §22). This means it is punishable by law to use, possess, sell, manufacture, import, acquire, store, or ship DMT without a special license for medical or scientific research purposes (legemiddelloven §31, §24; straffeloven §231).
This means that ayahuasca/changa containing DMT in synthetic or isolated form is considered a "mixture" (narkotikaforskriften §3), making it an illicit drug.
Ayahuasca/changa prepared with naturally DMT-containing plants:
Plants containing DMT are not listed as illicit drugs. This means they are not considered illict drugs despite containing significant quantities of DMT, following the supreme court's requirement that any species which naturally contains an illicit substance must be listed individually in the illicit drugs list in order to be counted as such. However, cultivating any of these plants for the sole purpose of producing DMT in any of its listed forms is considered manufacturing of illicit drugs, and is illegal (narkotikaforskriften §7, legemiddelloven §22).
Based on this, it is also illegal to import and distribute seeds of DMT-producing plants (såvareforskriften §28).
Norwegian courts have not yet ruled on whether ayahuasca/changa prepared with DMT-containing plants are considered "mixtures" (as defined by narkotikaforskriften §3) and thus illicit drugs. The UN International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) have, however, expressed that ayahuasca is not a "preparation" as defined by the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. INCB points to the fact that the substances named in the 1971 Convention are only regulated in their isolated form, and not as they naturally occur in plants and other organisms. Therefore, according to the INCB, plant brews like ayahuasca are considered mixtures containing a plant, rather than mixtures containing a particular active ingredient.
Since the term "mixture" in the Norwegian drug regulation (narkotikaforskriften) is to be understood in the same way as the term "preparation" in the 1971 Convention, it is possible that plant-based ayahuasca and changa should not be considered drugs in Norway. However, this is still not clear, as Norway is not bound by the INCB's interpretation. Although it follows from Supreme Court practice that the plant material itself is not a "mixture" even if it is dried and processed, the preparation of both ayahuasca and changa involves dissolving out compounds from the plants, which technically makes it an extraction process. "Extracts" are specifically mentioned in the drug regulation (§3), but it is unclear whether the term is to be understood according to the INCB's definition (i.e. that the active ingredient must also be isolated from other compounds), or whether a crude extract containing all water-soluble substances in the plant (as in ayahuasca) is sufficient.
Until the Norwegian Supreme Court makes a ruling on this issue, it remains unclear whether ayahuasca and changa are considered drugs in Norway. Seeing as clear legal authority is required in order for the courts to punish citizens, it remains doubtful for the time being that one can be punished for drug offenses involving fully plant-based ayahuasca or changa.
Plants containing DMT are also considered medicinal plants, making them prescription drugs (legemiddelforskriften §3–8). This means it is punishable by law to import or sell them without the required permission (legemiddelloven §13, §16, §31; forskrift om tilvirkning og import av legemidler § 3-2). However, live plants for decorative purposes are not considered herbal drugs. Furthermore, any transport, storage, sale, distribution or procurement of illegaly imported DMT-containing plants is viewed as receiving stolen goods, and is punishable under customs law (tolloven §16–4). This means that involvement with plant-based ayahuasca or changa may still be punishable as a customs offense even if it is not a drug offense, provided it can be proven that the constituent plants were illegally imported.
1. Domínguez-Clavé et al., Ayahuasca: Pharmacology, neuroscience and therapeutic potential. Brain Research Bulletin, 2016.
2. Callaway et al., Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans. J Ethnopharmacol, 1999.
3. McKenna & Riba, New World Tryptamine Hallucinogens and the Neuroscience of Ayahuasca. Curr Top Behav Neurosci, 2018.
4. Kaasik et al., Chemical Composition of Traditional and Analog Ayahuasca. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2021.
5. Shulgin & Shulgin, TiHKAL: The Continuation. 1997, Berkeley, California: Transform Press.
6. Grob et al., Human psychopharmacology of hoasca, a plant hallucinogen used in ritual context in Brazil. J Nerv Ment Dis, 1996.
7. Hamill et al., Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness. Curr Neuropharmacol, 2019.
8. Miller et al., Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2019.
9. Ott, Pharmahuasca: Human Pharmacology of Oral DMT Plus Harmine. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1999.
10. Ona & Troncoso, Long-lasting analgesic effect of the psychedelic drug changa: A case report. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 2019.
11. PsychonautWiki. Changa Preparation Guide; Tilgjengelig fra: https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/Preparation_of_changa.
12. Johnson, Richards & Griffiths, Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety. J Psychopharmacol, 2008.
13. Pic-Taylor et al., Behavioural and neurotoxic effects of ayahuasca infusion (Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis) in female Wistar rat. Behav Processes, 2015.
14. Balksjö & Nordström, Svensk i koma - övergiven i Peru, i Aftonbladet. 2010.
15. Gable, Risk assessment of ritual use of oral dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and harmala alkaloids. Addiction, 2007.
16. Fontanilla et al., The hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is an endogenous sigma-1 receptor regulator. Science (New York, N.Y.), 2009.
17. Ona et al., Ayahuasca and Public Health: Health Status, Psychosocial Well-Being, Lifestyle, and Coping Strategies in a Large Sample of Ritual Ayahuasca Users. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2019.
18. Strassman, Qualls & Berg, Differential tolerance to biological and subjective effects of four closely spaced doses of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans. Biol Psychiatry, 1996.
19. Doering-Silveira et al., Report on psychoactive drug use among adolescents using ayahuasca within a religious context. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2005.
20. Johansen & Krebs, Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: a population study. J Psychopharmacol, 2015.
21. Da Silveira et al., Ayahuasca in adolescence: a preliminary psychiatric assessment. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2005.
22. de Rios et al., Ayahuasca in adolescence: Qaualitative results. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2005.
23. Doering-Silveira et al., Ayahuasca in adolescence: a neuropsychological assessment. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2005.
24. Halpern, Lerner & Passie, A Review of Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD) and an Exploratory Study of Subjects Claiming Symptoms of HPPD. Curr Top Behav Neurosci, 2018.
25. Nichols, Psychedelics. Pharmacological reviews, 2016.
26. Martinotti et al., Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder: Etiology, Clinical Features, and Therapeutic Perspectives. Brain Sciences, 2018.
27. Hearn, The Dark Side of Ayahuasca, i Men's Journal. 2013.
28. Castberg & Spigset Irreversible, uselektive monoaminoksidasehemmere. Tidsskriftet for Den Norske Legeforening, 2009.
29. Beyaz et al., Seizures associated with low-dose tramadol for chronic pain treatment. Anesthesia, essays and researches, 2016.
30. throwaway_naut, WARNING: LSD + Lithium = disaster, in Reddit. 2013; Tilgjengelig fra: https://www.reddit.com/r/LSD/comments/17wn82/warning_lsd_lithium_disaster/
31. Davis et al., The epidemiology of 5-methoxy- N, N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) use: Benefits, consequences, patterns of use, subjective effects, and reasons for consumption. Journal of psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 2018.
32. ICEERS. Ayahuasca: Basic info; Tilgjengelig fra: https://www.iceers.org/ayahuasca-basic-info/.
33. Uthaug et al., Sub-acute and long-term effects of ayahuasca on affect and cognitive thinking style and their association with ego dissolution. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2018.
34. PsychonautWiki. DMT. 2022; Tilgjengelig fra: https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/dmt.
35. PsychonautWiki. Ayahuasca. 2019; Tilgjengelig fra: https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/ayahuasca.
36. Soler et al., Exploring the therapeutic potential of Ayahuasca: acute intake increases mindfulness-related capacities. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2016.
37. Fadiman, The Psychedelic Explorer's Guide: Safe, Therapeutic and Sacred Journeys. 2011, Rochester, Vermont: Park Street Press.
38. Erritzoe et al., Recreational use of psychedelics is associated with elevated personality trait openness: Exploration of associations with brain serotonin markers. J Psychopharmacol, 2019.
2. Callaway et al., Pharmacokinetics of Hoasca alkaloids in healthy humans. J Ethnopharmacol, 1999.
3. McKenna & Riba, New World Tryptamine Hallucinogens and the Neuroscience of Ayahuasca. Curr Top Behav Neurosci, 2018.
4. Kaasik et al., Chemical Composition of Traditional and Analog Ayahuasca. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2021.
5. Shulgin & Shulgin, TiHKAL: The Continuation. 1997, Berkeley, California: Transform Press.
6. Grob et al., Human psychopharmacology of hoasca, a plant hallucinogen used in ritual context in Brazil. J Nerv Ment Dis, 1996.
7. Hamill et al., Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness. Curr Neuropharmacol, 2019.
8. Miller et al., Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2019.
9. Ott, Pharmahuasca: Human Pharmacology of Oral DMT Plus Harmine. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 1999.
10. Ona & Troncoso, Long-lasting analgesic effect of the psychedelic drug changa: A case report. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 2019.
11. PsychonautWiki. Changa Preparation Guide; Tilgjengelig fra: https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/Preparation_of_changa.
12. Johnson, Richards & Griffiths, Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety. J Psychopharmacol, 2008.
13. Pic-Taylor et al., Behavioural and neurotoxic effects of ayahuasca infusion (Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis) in female Wistar rat. Behav Processes, 2015.
14. Balksjö & Nordström, Svensk i koma - övergiven i Peru, i Aftonbladet. 2010.
15. Gable, Risk assessment of ritual use of oral dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and harmala alkaloids. Addiction, 2007.
16. Fontanilla et al., The hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is an endogenous sigma-1 receptor regulator. Science (New York, N.Y.), 2009.
17. Ona et al., Ayahuasca and Public Health: Health Status, Psychosocial Well-Being, Lifestyle, and Coping Strategies in a Large Sample of Ritual Ayahuasca Users. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2019.
18. Strassman, Qualls & Berg, Differential tolerance to biological and subjective effects of four closely spaced doses of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans. Biol Psychiatry, 1996.
19. Doering-Silveira et al., Report on psychoactive drug use among adolescents using ayahuasca within a religious context. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2005.
20. Johansen & Krebs, Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: a population study. J Psychopharmacol, 2015.
21. Da Silveira et al., Ayahuasca in adolescence: a preliminary psychiatric assessment. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2005.
22. de Rios et al., Ayahuasca in adolescence: Qaualitative results. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2005.
23. Doering-Silveira et al., Ayahuasca in adolescence: a neuropsychological assessment. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2005.
24. Halpern, Lerner & Passie, A Review of Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD) and an Exploratory Study of Subjects Claiming Symptoms of HPPD. Curr Top Behav Neurosci, 2018.
25. Nichols, Psychedelics. Pharmacological reviews, 2016.
26. Martinotti et al., Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder: Etiology, Clinical Features, and Therapeutic Perspectives. Brain Sciences, 2018.
27. Hearn, The Dark Side of Ayahuasca, i Men's Journal. 2013.
28. Castberg & Spigset Irreversible, uselektive monoaminoksidasehemmere. Tidsskriftet for Den Norske Legeforening, 2009.
29. Beyaz et al., Seizures associated with low-dose tramadol for chronic pain treatment. Anesthesia, essays and researches, 2016.
30. throwaway_naut, WARNING: LSD + Lithium = disaster, in Reddit. 2013; Tilgjengelig fra: https://www.reddit.com/r/LSD/comments/17wn82/warning_lsd_lithium_disaster/
31. Davis et al., The epidemiology of 5-methoxy- N, N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) use: Benefits, consequences, patterns of use, subjective effects, and reasons for consumption. Journal of psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 2018.
32. ICEERS. Ayahuasca: Basic info; Tilgjengelig fra: https://www.iceers.org/ayahuasca-basic-info/.
33. Uthaug et al., Sub-acute and long-term effects of ayahuasca on affect and cognitive thinking style and their association with ego dissolution. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2018.
34. PsychonautWiki. DMT. 2022; Tilgjengelig fra: https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/dmt.
35. PsychonautWiki. Ayahuasca. 2019; Tilgjengelig fra: https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/ayahuasca.
36. Soler et al., Exploring the therapeutic potential of Ayahuasca: acute intake increases mindfulness-related capacities. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2016.
37. Fadiman, The Psychedelic Explorer's Guide: Safe, Therapeutic and Sacred Journeys. 2011, Rochester, Vermont: Park Street Press.
38. Erritzoe et al., Recreational use of psychedelics is associated with elevated personality trait openness: Exploration of associations with brain serotonin markers. J Psychopharmacol, 2019.
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